Chinese Priest and Martyr: Faith Under Persecution

Feast Day: July 9 (with the 120 Martyrs of China)
Individual Memorial: February 13

A Shepherd Boy Who Became a Shepherd of Souls

Saint Paulus Liu Hanzuo stands as a luminous example of how God calls the humble and raises up the lowly to accomplish his purposes. Born into poverty, working as a shepherd boy with no education, illiterate until his mid-twenties, this remarkable Chinese priest became one of the 120 Martyrs of China canonized by Pope St. John Paul II on October 1, 2000. His life testifies to the power of perseverance in following God's call, the courage to witness to Christ in the face of death, and the universal character of the Catholic Church which embraces people of every nation and culture.

Father Paul's martyrdom on February 13, 1818, occurred during one of the most intense periods of anti-Christian persecution in Chinese history under the Jiaqing Emperor. His death—by strangulation at the public execution ground in Chengdu—was the direct result of his refusal to renounce his Catholic faith and his determination to continue ministering to his flock despite imperial prohibition. He was betrayed by a fellow Christian whose anger over a minor dispute led to the arrest and eventual execution of this holy priest.

The story of Saint Paulus Liu Hanzuo provides a window into the experience of Catholic Christianity in early 19th century China, the challenges faced by Chinese Catholics under imperial persecution, and the extraordinary faith of those who chose martyrdom rather than apostasy. His canonization, along with 119 other Chinese martyrs and foreign missionaries, represents the Church's recognition of the heroic witness of Chinese Catholics and the deep roots of Christianity in Chinese soil.

Part I: Historical Context - Christianity in Qing Dynasty China

Christianity's Complex History in China

To understand Saint Paulus Liu Hanzuo's life and martyrdom, we must first understand the religious and political climate of early 19th century China under the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).

Christianity first arrived in China during the Tang Dynasty in the 7th century through Nestorian missionaries from the Church of the East (as documented on the famous Nestorian Stele of 781 AD). However, this early Christian presence was largely extinguished during subsequent persecutions, particularly after Emperor Wuzong's decree in 845 banning Christianity and other "foreign religions."

Catholic Christianity was reintroduced to China during the late Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) through the pioneering work of Jesuit missionaries, most notably Matteo Ricci (1552-1610), who arrived in 1583. These Jesuits adopted a remarkable strategy of cultural accommodation, learning Chinese language and classical literature, adopting Chinese dress and customs, and engaging respectfully with Confucian philosophy. Their approach won them access to the imperial court and earned the respect of Chinese literati.

The Golden Age and Its End: The Kangxi Emperor's Reign

The Qing Dynasty, established by the Manchu conquest in 1644, initially continued this relatively tolerant policy toward Christianity. Emperor Kangxi (r. 1661-1722) was particularly favorable toward the Jesuits, employing them as astronomers, cartographers, artists, and scientific advisers at his court. In 1692, he issued the famous "Edict of Toleration" which officially recognized and protected Catholic Christianity throughout the empire.

During this period, Catholic missions flourished. By the early 18th century, there were approximately 300,000 Chinese Catholics, numerous churches, and a growing number of Chinese priests. The future looked bright for Catholic Christianity in China.

The Chinese Rites Controversy and Its Consequences

However, this golden age was brought to an abrupt end by what became known as the "Chinese Rites Controversy." This theological and cultural dispute centered on whether Chinese Catholics could participate in Confucian rituals and ancestor veneration ceremonies. The Jesuits, following their policy of cultural accommodation, had permitted these practices, arguing they were civil and cultural rather than religious acts.

Other religious orders, particularly the Dominicans and Franciscans, objected strenuously, claiming these practices constituted idolatry and worship of false gods. The controversy was appealed to Rome, and in 1715, Pope Clement XI issued the bull Ex illa die, which definitively prohibited Chinese Catholics from participating in these ceremonies.

When this papal decision was communicated to Emperor Kangxi, he was deeply offended. From the Chinese perspective, the ceremonies in question were fundamental expressions of Chinese culture and filial piety—the very foundation of Confucian civilization. The Pope's prohibition seemed to demand that Chinese converts abandon their cultural identity and family obligations. More fundamentally, it challenged imperial authority by asserting that a foreign religious leader (the Pope) could dictate to Chinese subjects how they should honor their ancestors and relate to their cultural traditions.

The Yongzheng Persecution (1724)

Kangxi's successor, the Yongzheng Emperor (r. 1723-1735), was far less tolerant of Christianity. In 1724, he issued a comprehensive ban on Catholic Christianity, declaring it a "heterodox sect" and "perverse doctrine" comparable to other dangerous secret societies that threatened social order and imperial authority.

The imperial edict of 1724 stated:

"Reading over the tenets of the Western teaching, we find that they are infinitely worse than those of other heretical sects... Let all the Western churches in the provinces be promptly utilized and converted into local public buildings such as schools, charitable institutions, etc."

This edict ordered:

All churches to be confiscated and converted to other uses
Foreign missionaries to be expelled to Macau (a Portuguese territory)
Chinese Christians to renounce their faith or face punishment
Chinese priests to be arrested and exiled
Officials who had allowed Christianity to flourish to be punished

While enforcement was inconsistent—particularly in remote areas—this marked the beginning of more than a century of persecution that would continue, with varying intensity, until the aftermath of the First Opium War in the 1840s.

Sichuan Province: A Refuge for Chinese Catholicism

Ironically, one region where Catholicism not only survived but actually flourished during this period of persecution was Sichuan Province—Saint Paulus Liu Hanzuo's homeland. Sichuan, located in southwestern China, was geographically isolated from the centers of imperial power by mountains and difficult terrain. This remoteness, combined with a certain administrative weakness in the province, allowed Christianity to grow even as it faced suppression elsewhere.

By the late 18th century, Sichuan had become one of the strongest centers of Catholic life in China, with thousands of Catholics organized in villages and communities, hidden seminaries training Chinese priests, and a network of underground churches. The Paris Foreign Missions Society (Missions Étrangères de Paris) was particularly active in Sichuan, working to develop a native Chinese clergy.

The Jiaqing Persecution (1805-1820)

The situation worsened dramatically under the Jiaqing Emperor (r. 1796-1820), who ruled during Saint Paul Liu Hanzuo's adult life and priesthood. The Jiaqing Emperor, facing internal rebellions (particularly the massive White Lotus Rebellion of 1796-1804), became increasingly paranoid about any groups or organizations that might threaten imperial control.

Beginning in 1805, the emperor issued a series of harsh anti-Christian decrees:

1805 Edict: The first major decree explicitly targeting Christianity under Jiaqing's reign

1811 Edicts: Two separate edicts specifically targeted:

Chinese students studying for the priesthood
Priests who were propagating Christianity
Those who sheltered or aided missionaries

1813 Decree: This decree made a significant and ominous distinction:

Voluntary apostates (those who spontaneously renounced Christianity) would be pardoned
All others—those who refused to apostatize—would be "dealt with harshly"

1814 Amendment to the Legal Code: Most significantly, the Jiaqing Emperor amended the Great Qing Code to include Christianity under the category of "witchcraft and sorcery." This legal change had devastating implications:

European missionaries caught spreading Catholicism among Chinese and Manchus were to be executed
Chinese Christians who refused to renounce their faith were to be exiled to Muslim territories in Xinjiang and given as slaves to Muslim leaders
Local officials who failed to suppress Christianity could themselves be punished

These laws created an atmosphere of terror for Chinese Catholics. Informers were rewarded for reporting Christians. Local officials, fearing punishment for laxity, sometimes conducted aggressive campaigns to root out Christian communities. Catholics had to practice their faith in complete secrecy, with priests moving constantly to avoid arrest.

It was in this dangerous environment that Father Paul Liu Hanzuo exercised his priestly ministry.

Part II: Early Life and Path to Priesthood (1778-1808)

Birth and Family Background (1778)

Paul Liu Hanzuo (劉翰佐, pinyin: Liú Hànzuǒ) was born in 1778 in the village of Lezi (樂至, pinyin: Lèzhì) in Lezhi County, Sichuan Province. His surname, Liu (劉), is one of the most common surnames in China. His given name, Hanzuo (翰佐), combines characters meaning "literary/scholar" (翰) and "assistant/helper" (佐).

His family, though not materially wealthy, belonged to what the sources describe as a "fervent Catholic family" with deep roots in the faith. This is significant because becoming Catholic in 18th century Sichuan required genuine commitment—it meant belonging to a persecuted, underground religious community, practicing one's faith in secret, and accepting the risk of imprisonment, exile, or even death.

We can infer several things about Paul's family:

They were likely converts from an earlier generation, possibly dating back to the more tolerant Kangxi era
They maintained their Catholic faith despite persecution and social stigma
They raised their children in the faith, passing on their beliefs at considerable personal risk
Though poor, they valued their spiritual heritage more than material comfort or social advancement

The Liu family's poverty was extreme. They were farmers or laborers without significant land holdings, living at subsistence level. In the rigid social hierarchy of imperial China, they belonged to the lowest class—peasants who worked the land but owned little or nothing.

Childhood as a Shepherd Boy

Because of his family's desperate poverty, Paul was required to work from his earliest years. He was given the responsibility of tending sheep—a common occupation for poor children who could not contribute to more skilled labor.

The life of a shepherd boy in rural Sichuan would have been:

Lonely, spending long days in fields or on hillsides with only animals for company
Physically demanding, requiring long hours outdoors in all weather
Poorly compensated, earning just enough to contribute to family survival
Completely incompatible with formal education, as the child's labor was needed daily

As a consequence of this childhood employment, Paul never attended school. In traditional China, education was the pathway to social advancement—literacy and classical learning were prerequisites for the imperial examination system that selected government officials. Without education, one remained in the peasant class permanently.

By age 24—an age when educated men might have already passed the lower level imperial examinations and begun their careers—Paul Liu Hanzuo remained completely illiterate. He could neither read nor write Chinese characters. He spoke only in the local Sichuanese dialect, not the standard Mandarin of educated classes.

From a worldly perspective, his situation was hopeless. He had no education, no prospects, no path to advancement, no resources. He was destined to remain a poor peasant all his life, probably working as a day laborer or in some other menial occupation.

But God had other plans.

The Call to Priesthood

Despite—or perhaps because of—his poverty and lack of education, Paul Liu Hanzuo experienced a powerful call to the priesthood. This vocation, burning in his heart from an early age, would not be extinguished by circumstances.

The sources tell us he "strongly desired to be a priest." This desire is remarkable considering:

He had no education and couldn't read the Bible or theological texts
He had no financial resources to support himself during years of study
He belonged to a persecuted religion where being a priest meant living as a fugitive
Chinese priests faced almost certain arrest, torture, exile, or execution
He would have to master not only Chinese literacy but also Latin, philosophy, and theology

Most people would have dismissed such a vocation as impossible, a fantasy completely disconnected from reality. But Paul Liu Hanzuo did not give up. Instead, he did something that required tremendous courage and persistence: at age 24, he approached the seminary and begged to be admitted.

Seeking Admission to Seminary (1802)

The seminary in question was located at Luorenggou (羅人溝, pinyin: Luórénggōu), one of the underground seminaries operated by the Paris Foreign Missions Society in Sichuan. These seminaries had to operate in complete secrecy, moving locations frequently to avoid detection by imperial authorities.

When Paul Liu Hanzuo appeared at the seminary, the rector faced a dilemma. Here was a sincere young man with an evident vocation, but:

He was 24 years old—much older than typical seminary entrants
He was completely illiterate
He had no preparatory education
He spoke only local dialect, not standard Mandarin
He had no knowledge of Latin (the language of liturgy and theological study)
He had no financial resources to pay for his education

By any normal standards, he was completely unqualified for admission. The rector initially refused him.

But Paul Liu Hanzuo would not be discouraged. The sources tell us he "begged the Rector of the Seminary" and showed "much persistence." Day after day, he returned, asking to be given a chance. His humility, sincerity, and evident determination finally moved the rector to relent.

Paul Liu Hanzuo was admitted to the seminary—but with the understanding that he faced enormous challenges. Most students began seminary studies after years of classical education in Chinese literature and philosophy, followed by introductory Latin studies. Paul would have to learn everything from scratch: basic literacy, classical Chinese, philosophical concepts, theological principles, and Latin—all simultaneously, while far older than his fellow students.

Seminary Studies: Struggle and Adaptation

The sources are frank about Paul's difficulties: "He studied the best he could, but struggled with most of the subjects, especially Latin."

Learning Latin—a completely foreign language with different grammar, different alphabet, and no relationship to Chinese—would have been extraordinarily difficult for someone who had only recently become literate in his own language. Moreover, in 19th century seminaries, Latin was not just one subject among many; it was the language of instruction. Theology, philosophy, Scripture study, moral theology, canon law—all were taught in Latin. The liturgy was celebrated in Latin. Even casual conversation among seminarians often took place in Latin.

For Paul Liu Hanzuo, trying to learn complex theological concepts through a language he barely understood, while simultaneously trying to master that language, while also making up for a lifetime of missed education, must have been an overwhelming challenge. Many times, he must have been tempted to give up.

The seminary faculty recognized that by normal standards, Paul would never be able to complete the standard course of studies. The sources tell us bluntly: "The seminary leaders saw that Liu would not come close to passing."

An Unprecedented Accommodation

Faced with this situation, the seminary leadership made an unprecedented decision: they would allow Paul Liu Hanzuo to study philosophy and theology in Chinese rather than Latin.

This was an extraordinary accommodation. The Catholic Church had always insisted on Latin as the language of theological formation, ensuring universal standards and the ability of priests to function anywhere in the Catholic world. The liturgy itself was in Latin. How could someone become a priest without mastering the Church's official language?

Yet the seminary faculty recognized several important factors:

Paul's vocation was genuine and persistent
His character and piety were evident
The Chinese Church desperately needed native priests
Chinese priests could minister more effectively to Chinese Catholics than foreign missionaries
Theological truth could be expressed in Chinese as well as in Latin
The practical needs of the mission outweighed theoretical preferences

This decision reflected the wisdom and pastoral sensitivity of the missionaries working in China. They were willing to adapt canonical requirements to local circumstances, recognizing that God calls people from every culture and that the Church must find ways to respond to authentic vocations even when they don't fit conventional patterns.

Paul Liu Hanzuo threw himself into his studies with renewed determination. Learning theology in Chinese, he could finally grasp the concepts. His intellectual abilities, hidden beneath his lack of education, began to emerge. He proved to be not only capable but dedicated, studying long hours to make up for lost time.

Ordination to the Priesthood (c. 1808-1813)

The sources differ slightly on the exact date of Paul's ordination, with some placing it when he was in his early 30s and others suggesting he was 35. What is clear is that after years of arduous study, Paul Liu Hanzuo was ordained a Catholic priest sometime between 1808 and 1813.

This ordination was itself an act requiring courage on the part of both Paul and the bishop who ordained him. Under the Jiaqing Emperor's laws, Chinese priests were specifically targeted for arrest and execution. By accepting ordination, Paul Liu Hanzuo was essentially accepting a death sentence—it was only a matter of when, not if, he would be arrested.

Yet he accepted this freely, knowing that he was called to lay down his life for Christ and his people if necessary. The words of Jesus must have resonated deeply with him: "I am the good shepherd. The good shepherd lays down his life for the sheep" (John 10:11). Having literally been a shepherd of animals in his youth, Paul Liu Hanzuo was now a shepherd of souls, ready to give his life for his flock.

Part III: Priestly Ministry in Secret (1808-1817)

Assignment to Northern Sichuan

After his ordination, Father Paul Liu Hanzuo was assigned to minister in three counties north of Chengdu (the provincial capital): Deyang (德陽), Hanzhou (漢州), and Xindu (新都). These rural areas had significant Catholic populations living in scattered villages and farms.

His appointment to these particular counties suggests several things:

There were established Catholic communities there requiring pastoral care
The areas were remote enough to offer some protection from imperial authorities
A Chinese priest who spoke the local dialect could minister more effectively than foreign missionaries
The Church was attempting to build sustainable local leadership

Father Paul's ministry would have included:

Celebrating Mass in secret locations
Hearing confessions
Administering baptisms (often to infants in danger of death)
Solemnizing marriages according to Catholic rites
Visiting the sick and dying to give last sacraments
Teaching catechism to children and adults
Strengthening the faith of Catholics under persecution
Receiving converts into the Church

All of this had to be done in complete secrecy, constantly moving from place to place, always alert for informers or government agents.

Life as a Fugitive Priest

When anti-Christian persecution intensified, Father Paul was forced to adopt a disguise. The sources tell us he worked as a "vegetable vendor" or merchant by day, using this cover to move freely through towns and villages without attracting suspicion.

This detail is both poignant and instructive. Here was a man who had struggled so hard to become a priest, who had overcome illiteracy and poverty to study theology—and now he had to pretend to be an ordinary merchant, hiding his priesthood as though it were something shameful. The persecution forced him to be a shepherd of souls in secret, ministering to his flock under cover of darkness.

The sources describe his double life succinctly: "He sold goods by day and at night visited his parishioners."

Imagine his daily routine:

Rising before dawn to set up his vegetable stall in the market
Selling produce throughout the day, engaging in ordinary conversation and commerce
Carefully noting the location and needs of Catholic families in the area
Returning to his lodging in the evening
Then, after dark, slipping out to visit Catholic homes
Celebrating clandestine Masses in hidden rooms
Hearing confessions by candlelight
Baptizing infants born to Catholic parents
Teaching the faith to children and catechumens
Returning before dawn to avoid notice
Beginning the cycle again

This grueling schedule—working all day as a merchant, then ministering all night as a priest—must have been physically exhausting. It also required constant vigilance. One careless word, one suspicious neighbor, one informer, and he would be arrested.

Father Paul lived this way for years, faithfully serving his people despite the danger. He was sustained by his love for Christ, his sense of vocation, and his commitment to the Catholic community that depended on him.

The Clandestine Church Community

It's important to understand what Catholic life was like for Chinese Christians during this period of persecution. Catholic communities in Sichuan existed as:

Underground Networks: Catholics knew each other through careful word-of-mouth networks. Trust was essential—a single informer could destroy an entire community.

House Churches: Mass was celebrated in private homes, with lookouts posted to warn of approaching authorities. Crucifixes, statues, and other religious objects were carefully hidden, brought out only for worship and then concealed again.

Oral Tradition: Since possessing Catholic books or religious materials could be used as evidence of Christianity, much of the faith was transmitted orally—prayers memorized, catechism learned by rote, Scripture passages committed to memory.

Sacramental Hunger: Because priests were so few and had to move constantly, Catholics often went long periods without access to the sacraments. When a priest arrived, Catholics would gather from surrounding areas, eager for confession, communion, and the other sacraments.

Solidarity Under Suffering: Persecution created strong bonds among Chinese Catholics. They supported each other materially and spiritually, sheltering fugitive priests, warning each other of danger, and maintaining their faith despite tremendous pressure to apostatize.

Father Paul Liu Hanzuo was at the center of this underground Catholic community, providing the sacramental ministry that was its lifeblood. His presence brought Christ to his people in the Eucharist, assured them of forgiveness in confession, and strengthened their resolve to remain faithful despite persecution.

Part IV: Betrayal, Arrest, and Trial (1817-1818)

The Fateful Canopy: A Minor Dispute with Major Consequences

In 1817 (some sources say 1818), Father Paul Liu Hanzuo traveled to Dezhou, one of the counties in his pastoral territory, where he stayed with a Catholic family. A major feast was approaching—likely Christmas, Easter, or Pentecost—and preparations needed to be made for a celebration of Mass.

Father Paul commissioned a local carpenter, who was a new convert to Catholicism, to construct a canopy (baldachin) for the feast. A canopy was a decorative covering, often held over the altar or the Blessed Sacrament during processions or special liturgies. Its construction required carpentry skills, and Father Paul trusted this new Catholic to handle the task.

However, when the canopy was completed, it did not meet the specifications that Father Paul had requested. Sources differ on the exact nature of the problem. One account states simply that Father Paul "made a remark to the carpenter that his work was progressing very slowly." Another version suggests that the finished product wasn't constructed according to the agreed-upon design.

Whatever the specifics, Father Paul expressed his dissatisfaction with the work. His criticism may have been perfectly justified—perhaps the canopy was poorly made or didn't meet liturgical requirements. But the carpenter reacted with anger.

The carpenter felt insulted and unappreciated. Rather than accepting the criticism or discussing the problems with the work, he nursed his wounded pride and desire for revenge. His anger festered until he made a terrible decision—one that would have fatal consequences.

The Betrayal: A Christian Turns Informer

That Sunday, when Father Paul was preparing to celebrate Mass with the local Catholic community, the angry carpenter went to the authorities and informed them where Father Paul Liu Hanzuo could be found.

This betrayal is particularly poignant because:

The carpenter was himself a Christian—someone Father Paul had likely instructed in the faith
He was a recent convert, suggesting Father Paul had personally received him into the Church
He had been entrusted with creating a sacred object for worship
He knew that his denunciation would almost certainly result in Father Paul's death
His motive was petty—wounded pride over a legitimate critique of his work

The betrayal by a fellow Christian recalls Judas's betrayal of Jesus for thirty pieces of silver. It also reflects a bitter reality of persecution: the most dangerous threats often came not from overt enemies but from within the community itself, when fear, anger, or greed overcame faith and loyalty.

The Arrest: Mass Interrupted

The authorities acted immediately on the carpenter's information. They raided the house where the Catholic community had gathered for Mass.

Father Paul Liu Hanzuo was in the middle of celebrating Mass when the authorities burst in. The sources provide a touching detail: "He was arrested while he was offering Mass."

Imagine the scene: a hidden room, Catholics gathered in prayer, the priest at the makeshift altar celebrating the sacred mysteries. Then suddenly the doors crashing open, guards rushing in, shouts and confusion. The congregation scattering in terror. Father Paul, still wearing his vestments, being seized.

According to one account, Father Paul requested that he be allowed to finish celebrating Mass before being taken away. The sources indicate that this request was granted—though whether out of respect for his courage, confusion about what to do, or cynical desire to let him complete the crime for which he was being arrested, we cannot know.

The authorities confiscated all religious items at the scene:

Vestments
Chalice and paten
Altar cloths
Candles
Whatever missals or prayer books were present
The canopy that had been the occasion of the betrayal

All of these would be used as evidence against him at trial, proof of his "criminal" activity of celebrating Catholic Mass.

Father Paul was placed under arrest and taken away. He would never again celebrate Mass in freedom. He would never see his parishioners again—except perhaps those who were brave enough to visit him in prison or witness his execution.

Imprisonment and Interrogation

Father Paul Liu Hanzuo was taken to prison in Chengdu, the provincial capital, where he was held while the legal process proceeded. Prisons in early 19th century China were notorious for their harsh conditions:

Multiple prisoners crowded into small, unventilated cells
Minimal food—usually just enough gruel to keep prisoners alive
No sanitation facilities beyond a bucket
Disease spreading rapidly in the filthy, cramped conditions
Prisoners often kept in chains
Beatings and torture used routinely during interrogation

Father Paul would have endured all of this while awaiting trial. He was interrogated by local officials who demanded that he:

Renounce his Catholic faith and convert to traditional Chinese religion
Reveal the names and locations of other Catholics
Provide information about foreign missionaries operating in the area
Tell authorities about underground churches and gathering places

The interrogation likely included torture. Standard methods in Qing legal proceedings included:

Beatings with bamboo rods
Finger crushing
Kneeling on chains
Hanging by the wrists
Various forms of physical torment designed to extract confessions and information

The Trial and Father Paul's Testimony

When Father Paul Liu Hanzuo appeared before the mandarin (the local magistrate or judge), he demonstrated remarkable courage and steadfastness. The trial was a public spectacle, designed not only to punish the accused but to intimidate others and demonstrate imperial power.

According to sources, Father Paul's firmness and refusal to renounce his faith "irritated the mandarin." The magistrate, accustomed to having his authority obeyed without question, was frustrated by this poor priest who refused to apostatize despite threats and torture.

As punishment for his obstinacy, the sources tell us: "The mandarin had him struck with 40 slaps with a leather sole." This beating was both punishment and public humiliation, intended to break his spirit and make an example of him.

But Father Paul Liu Hanzuo remained steadfast. He would not:

Renounce Jesus Christ or the Catholic faith
Worship at Buddhist or Taoist shrines
Perform traditional ceremonies that the Church considered incompatible with Catholic faith
Cease being a priest
Betray his fellow Catholics

He also could not pay the substantial bribe that might have secured his release. As he had been poor all his life, he had no money. And even if he had possessed the funds, there's no indication he would have been willing to buy his freedom by compromising his priesthood.

The local authorities forwarded his case to higher levels, eventually reaching the imperial court. Under the Jiaqing Emperor's legal code, Chinese priests who refused to apostatize were to be executed. The death sentence was confirmed.

The Spiritual Meaning of Father Paul's Testimony

Father Paul Liu Hanzuo's refusal to compromise, even under torture and threat of death, reflects several profound spiritual principles:

Faithfulness to Vocation: Having struggled for years to become a priest, Father Paul would not renounce his priesthood to save his life. The priesthood was his identity, his calling from God, and worth dying for.

Loyalty to Christ: His refusal to apostatize demonstrated that Christ was more valuable to him than life itself. As Jesus said, "Whoever would save his life will lose it, but whoever loses his life for my sake will find it" (Matthew 16:25).

Protection of the Flock: By refusing to reveal names of other Catholics or locations of Christian communities, Father Paul protected his people even at the cost of his own suffering. He lived out the words: "The good shepherd lays down his life for the sheep" (John 10:11).

Witness to the Truth: His public testimony before the mandarin was a powerful witness to the truth of Christianity. His courage in the face of torture and death testified more eloquently than any sermon that the Catholic faith was worth dying for.

Confidence in Eternal Life: Father Paul's willingness to die rather than deny Christ demonstrated his absolute confidence in the resurrection and eternal life. Death was not the end, but the gateway to eternal communion with God.

Part V: Martyrdom and Legacy (February 13, 1818)

Execution at the East Gate

On February 13, 1818, Father Paulus Liu Hanzuo was led to the Square of Execution (also called the "Field of Execution" or "Execution Ground") located at the East Gate of Chengdu, the capital city of Sichuan Province.

Public executions in imperial China served multiple purposes:

Carrying out the legal penalty prescribed by law
Demonstrating imperial justice and authority
Warning others against similar crimes
Providing a spectacle that reinforced social order
Allowing the populace to witness the fate of criminals

The East Gate execution ground would have been a well-known location in Chengdu, a place of fear where criminals and political offenders met their end. On this day, Father Paul Liu Hanzuo would join countless others who had been executed there—but unlike common criminals, he was dying specifically for his faith in Jesus Christ.

Method of Execution: Strangulation

The method of execution was strangulation (also called garroting). In the Chinese legal system, there were different methods of execution that conveyed different degrees of severity and dishonor:

Beheading (decapitation) was considered a more severe punishment
Strangulation was considered slightly less harsh
Slow slicing (lingchi) was reserved for the most heinous crimes

Strangulation was typically performed using a rope or cord placed around the condemned person's neck. The executioner would tighten the cord, either by hand or using a wooden stick twisted to create pressure, until the condemned person died from asphyxiation.

This method of death was:

Relatively slow compared to beheading
Painful and terrifying
Public, allowing crowds to witness
Designed to be humiliating

For Father Paul Liu Hanzuo, this meant:

Being led through the streets to the execution ground
Possibly being displayed to the crowd with placards explaining his "crime"
Being bound and forced to kneel
Experiencing the terror of waiting for death
Feeling the rope around his neck
The slow loss of consciousness as breathing became impossible
Finally, death by asphyxiation

The Witness of Martyrdom

Though we have no detailed account of Father Paul's final moments, we can be confident of certain things based on:

The character he had displayed throughout his arrest and trial
The example of other Christian martyrs in similar circumstances
The fact that he was later recognized as a saint

Father Paul Liu Hanzuo almost certainly:

Prayed as he was led to execution, perhaps reciting the Rosary or repeating the name of Jesus
Forgave his executioners and the carpenter who had betrayed him
Offered his death for the conversion of China and the perseverance of Chinese Catholics
Commended his soul to God as the rope tightened around his neck
Died in union with Christ's sacrifice on the cross

The Catechism of the Catholic Church teaches: "Martyrdom is the supreme witness given to the truth of the faith: it means bearing witness even unto death. The martyr bears witness to Christ who died and rose, to whom he is united by charity. He bears witness to the truth of the faith and of Christian doctrine. He endures death through an act of fortitude" (CCC 2473).

Date Discrepancy Note

Most sources give Father Paul's death date as February 13, 1818. However, some sources (particularly a French language source) state "January 13, 1818." This discrepancy likely arises from:

Different calendar systems (Chinese lunar calendar vs. Gregorian calendar)
Transcription errors in historical records
Confusion between different dating conventions

The Church has officially recognized February 13 as the date of his martyrdom, which is when his individual memorial is observed (though his primary feast is July 9 with the other 120 Martyrs of China).

Burial and Veneration

After execution, Father Paul's body would have been taken down and either:

Released to his Catholic community for burial according to Christian rites
Disposed of by authorities (as sometimes happened with executed criminals)
Left exposed as a warning to others

If his body was recovered by Christians (as seems likely given his later veneration), he would have been buried in a Catholic cemetery with whatever funeral rites could be conducted safely. Even in death, secrecy would have been necessary—a public Catholic funeral would have drawn unwanted attention.

His grave would have become a site of pilgrimage for local Catholics, who would have prayed for his intercession and drawn strength from his example. In the underground Church, his martyrdom would have been recounted to strengthen others facing persecution.

Part VI: Recognition and Canonization

Beatification by Pope Leo XIII (1900)

The process of official recognition of Father Paul Liu Hanzuo's martyrdom took more than eight decades. This lengthy period reflects:

The difficulty of gathering documentation during times of persecution
The Church's careful, deliberate process for examining claims of martyrdom
The need to establish that death was truly "for the faith" (in odium fidei)
Political sensitivities regarding relations with China

Father Paul was formally declared a martyr by Pope Leo XIII on July 2, 1899. This declaration, known as a "decree on martyrdom," officially recognized that he had died specifically because of his Catholic faith and priestly ministry.

On May 27, 1900—barely a month before the outbreak of the Boxer Rebellion that would claim thousands more Christian lives—Pope Leo XIII beatified Father Paulus Liu Hanzuo in a ceremony at the Vatican. Beatification is the penultimate step before canonization, declaring that the person is in heaven and may be venerated publicly in the Church.

The timing of this beatification was providential. The beatification ceremony took place just before the Boxer Rebellion began in June 1900. This massive anti-foreign, anti-Christian uprising would result in the martyrdom of 86 of the 120 martyrs later canonized with Father Paul. It was as if the beatification of Father Paul Liu Hanzuo served as a prophetic sign of the new wave of martyrdom about to engulf Chinese Christians.

Canonization by Pope John Paul II (October 1, 2000)

On October 1, 2000—exactly one century after the peak of the Boxer Rebellion and 182 years after Father Paul's martyrdom—Pope St. John Paul II canonized Paulus Liu Hanzuo along with 119 other martyrs of China in a magnificent ceremony at St. Peter's Basilica in Rome.

This was a historic moment for multiple reasons:

The Largest Single Group Canonization: The canonization of 120 martyrs at once was one of the largest single group canonizations in Church history.

Recognition of Chinese Catholicism: The canonization publicly honored the deep roots of Catholic Christianity in China and the heroic witness of Chinese Catholics.

Universal Church: The group included 87 Chinese laypeople and 33 foreign missionaries from multiple countries, demonstrating the universal character of the Catholic Church.

Span of History: The martyrs died between 1648 and 1930, covering nearly three centuries of persecution.

Diverse Vocations: The group included bishops, priests, religious brothers and sisters, catechists, seminarians, and ordinary laypeople—men, women, children, young and old.

Pope John Paul II's Homily

In his canonization homily, Pope St. John Paul II spoke movingly about the significance of these Chinese martyrs:

"The Church is today grateful to the Lord, who blesses and illuminates her through the splendor of the holiness of these sons and daughters of China, who are now enrolled in the glorious company of the Saints. They come from many parts of the world: from China and Europe, young and old, priests and lay people. These holy martyrs of different cultural backgrounds and ethnic origins are united in the same love of God and the same commitment to preaching the Gospel. Their example and witness remind us that the Church is always young, renewed by the blood of her martyrs, and made ever more beautiful by their holiness."

He emphasized that their martyrdom was not about politics or cultural imperialism, but about pure witness to Christ:

"These Saints are martyrs; they died to bear witness to the truth. Christians have no intention of dominating or exploiting anyone. They intend only to spread the good news of salvation in Christ. Today's Chinese martyrs proclaim this loud and clear for all to hear."

Feast Days and Liturgical Celebration

Saint Paulus Liu Hanzuo is commemorated liturgically on two dates:

Primary Feast: July 9 is the universal feast of "Saint Augustine Zhao Rong and Companions (120 Martyrs of China)." This is an Optional Memorial in the General Roman Calendar, meaning it can be celebrated anywhere in the Catholic world. The liturgy honors all 120 Chinese martyrs together.

Individual Memorial: February 13 is sometimes observed as an individual memorial of Saint Paulus Liu Hanzuo, particularly in regions with special devotion to him or in Sichuan Province.

The liturgical texts for the feast of the Chinese Martyrs emphasize:

Their witness to Christ in the face of death
The universality of the Church embracing all peoples
The blood of martyrs as seed of the Church
Hope for the flourishing of Christianity in China

Political Controversy Surrounding the Canonization

The canonization of the Chinese martyrs in 2000 was not without controversy. The Chinese government strongly objected to the canonization, viewing it as:

An offense to Chinese national dignity
A reminder of the "unequal treaties" and colonial period
Honoring those associated with foreign imperialism
Interference in Chinese internal affairs

Chinese state media denounced the canonization, and the Chinese government issued official protests. Some Chinese Catholics felt conflicted, proud of their martyrs but uncomfortable with the political tensions created.

However, the Church insisted that the canonization was purely a religious act:

Recognizing authentic Christian martyrdom
Honoring those who died for faith, not politics
Celebrating the courage of Chinese Catholics
Demonstrating that the Gospel transcends political boundaries

In his homily, Pope John Paul II explicitly addressed this concern:

"The Church, in proposing these illustrious witnesses for the admiration and veneration of the faithful, is not blind to the historical and human limitations of some aspects of Church practice in China. If among those who evangelized China there were some who failed to respect the Chinese people and culture, the Church has already expressed her regret for such behavior."

The Church's position was clear: whatever mistakes may have been made by some missionaries or colonial powers, the martyrs themselves died purely for their faith, and their witness deserved recognition.

Part VII: Theological and Spiritual Significance

Martyrdom in Catholic Teaching

The canonization of Saint Paulus Liu Hanzuo invites us to reflect deeply on the meaning of martyrdom in Catholic theology and spirituality.

The Supreme Witness

The Catechism of the Catholic Church teaches: "Martyrdom is the supreme witness given to the truth of the faith: it means bearing witness even unto death" (CCC 2473). Martyrs are witnesses (the Greek word martys means "witness") who testify to the truth of Christianity through their willingness to die rather than deny Christ.

Union with Christ's Passion

Martyrs participate in a unique way in Christ's Passion and death. Just as Jesus laid down his life freely for our salvation, martyrs freely accept death rather than betray Christ. Their deaths become redemptive, offered in union with Christ's sacrifice on the cross.

Saint Paul wrote: "I rejoice in my sufferings for your sake, and in my flesh I complete what is lacking in Christ's afflictions for the sake of his body, that is, the church" (Colossians 1:24). This doesn't mean Christ's sacrifice was insufficient, but that God invites his people to participate in his redemptive work through their own sufferings and sacrifices.

The Blood of Martyrs as Seed

Tertullian famously wrote in the 3rd century: "The blood of martyrs is the seed of the Church" (semen est sanguis Christianorum). This proved true in China, where the witness of martyrs like Father Paul Liu Hanzuo:

Strengthened the faith of surviving Catholics
Inspired others to remain faithful despite persecution
Demonstrated the truth of Christianity through martyrs' courage
Created a heritage of heroic faith that sustained the Chinese Church

Today, despite decades of Communist persecution far worse than what Father Paul faced, there are estimated to be over 12 million Catholics in China (and many more Protestant Christians). The seed planted by martyrs continues to bear fruit.

The Gift of Martyrdom

Catholic tradition understands martyrdom as a grace—a special gift from God. Not everyone is called to be a martyr, and martyrdom requires particular graces:

Supernatural courage to face death
Unwavering faith in eternal life
Love for Christ stronger than love of life itself
Willingness to forgive persecutors
Trust in God's providence

Father Paul Liu Hanzuo received these graces when he needed them, just as countless other martyrs have throughout Church history.

Father Paul as Model of Priestly Virtue

Saint Paulus Liu Hanzuo exemplifies several virtues particularly important for priests:

Perseverance in Vocation

His journey to priesthood—from illiterate shepherd boy to ordained priest—required extraordinary perseverance. He did not let poverty, lack of education, or seemingly insurmountable obstacles deter him from responding to God's call. This perseverance continued throughout his ministry, even when persecution made priestly work extremely dangerous.

Humility

Father Paul never forgot his humble origins. Even as a priest, he was willing to work as a vegetable vendor to support his ministry and maintain his cover. He served the poorest Catholics, identifying with them because he had come from similar circumstances.

Pastoral Charity

His willingness to risk his life regularly to bring the sacraments to his people demonstrates the heart of pastoral charity—the love of a shepherd for his flock. He spent his days selling vegetables and his nights visiting parishioners, exhausting himself in service to his people.

Fidelity to the Cross

Father Paul embraced the cross that came with his vocation. He knew from the beginning that being a Chinese Catholic priest in the early 19th century meant probable martyrdom, yet he never wavered. When arrest came, he did not flee or hide, but bore witness to his faith.

Eucharistic Devotion

The fact that he was arrested while celebrating Mass, and that he requested to finish the Mass before being taken away, reveals his profound devotion to the Eucharist—the center of priestly ministry and the source of the Church's life.

The Dignity of the Poor and Uneducated

Father Paul's life powerfully proclaims that God calls people from every social class and that holiness is not limited to the educated or privileged.

The Pattern of Scripture

Throughout Scripture, God chooses the unlikely:

David, a shepherd boy, to be king
The apostles, mostly uneducated fishermen, to be Church leaders
Mary, a poor teenage girl, to be the Mother of God

Saint Paul wrote: "God chose what is foolish in the world to shame the wise; God chose what is weak in the world to shame the strong; God chose what is low and despised in the world, even things that are not, to bring to nothing things that are" (1 Corinthians 1:27-28).

Challenging Worldly Values

Father Paul's sanctity challenges worldly assumptions that:

Education and intelligence are prerequisites for spiritual leadership
Social status determines human worth
Poverty is a sign of God's disfavor
Only the elite can achieve greatness

His life proclaims that in God's eyes, the faithful, persevering heart of a poor shepherd matters infinitely more than worldly credentials.

Hope for the Marginalized

Father Paul's canonization offers hope to:

Those who feel they lack the education or qualifications for God's service
People from poor or disadvantaged backgrounds
Late vocations who feel they've missed their chance
Anyone who feels inadequate or unworthy

His example shows that God's grace can overcome any obstacle, and that authentic vocations will find a way despite circumstances.

The Universal Church and Inculturation

Saint Paulus Liu Hanzuo's life also speaks to important questions about the relationship between the Gospel and culture.

A Chinese Saint

Father Paul is authentically Chinese—born, raised, educated (finally), ordained, and martyred in China. His sanctity did not require him to cease being Chinese or to adopt Western cultural forms. He represents the truth that one can be fully Chinese and fully Catholic, that Christianity is not intrinsically Western but universal.

The Importance of Native Clergy

The accommodation made for Father Paul—allowing him to study theology in Chinese rather than Latin—proved prescient. Today, the Catholic Church recognizes that developing native clergy is essential for the Church's growth in any culture. Priests from the local culture can:

Communicate more effectively with their people
Understand local customs and sensibilities
Serve as bridges between the Gospel and the culture
Demonstrate that Christianity belongs to all peoples

The Challenge of Inculturation

The persecution Father Paul faced was rooted partly in the tension between Christianity and Chinese culture—specifically, the Chinese Rites Controversy. This raises ongoing questions:

How can the Gospel be expressed in culturally appropriate ways while maintaining doctrinal integrity?
Which cultural practices can be embraced or adapted, and which must be rejected?
How do we distinguish between essential Christian teaching and Western cultural accretions?

These questions remain relevant as the Church continues to grow in Asia, Africa, and other non-Western contexts.

Suffering and Providence

Finally, Father Paul's life invites reflection on suffering and divine providence.

The Mystery of Suffering

Why did God allow Father Paul to:

Be born into extreme poverty?
Remain uneducated until age 24?
Struggle so hard to become a priest?
Minister for only a few years before martyrdom?
Die at age 40, seemingly in the prime of his priesthood?

These questions have no easy answers. They participate in the mystery of suffering that has troubled believers throughout history. Yet several observations can be made:

Formation Through Difficulty

Father Paul's early hardships:

Developed his character and perseverance
Gave him empathy for the poor he would serve
Taught him dependence on God rather than his own resources
Prepared him for the greater trials of persecution

The Value of Faithfulness Over Success

From a worldly perspective, Father Paul's priesthood was a "failure"—brief ministry ended by arrest and execution. But God measures success differently:

His faithfulness mattered more than the length of his ministry
His martyrdom bore fruit in ways he never saw
His witness strengthened countless other Christians
His canonization has inspired millions

Trust in Divine Timing

Looking back, we can see that Father Paul died at exactly the "right" time—his martyrdom occurred during a period when his witness was needed and would be remembered. His death helped sustain Chinese Catholics through decades of further persecution.

Part VIII: Saint Paulus Liu Hanzuo for Today's Church

Relevance for Contemporary Catholics

Though Saint Paulus Liu Hanzuo died over 200 years ago in a very different cultural context, his life speaks powerfully to contemporary Catholics:

Fidelity Under Pressure

Modern Catholics, especially in the West, rarely face martyrdom, but we face other pressures:

Social pressure to conform to secular values
Cultural contempt for traditional Christian teaching
Economic pressure to compromise ethical principles
Political pressure to privatize faith

Father Paul's unwavering fidelity despite threats challenges us to remain faithful despite lesser pressures.

The Cost of Discipleship

Jesus said, "If anyone would come after me, let him deny himself and take up his cross daily and follow me" (Luke 9:23). Father Paul took this literally, accepting that following Christ meant risking death.

Contemporary discipleship also requires sacrifice:

Time spent in prayer rather than entertainment
Money given to the poor rather than spent on luxuries
Career choices that honor faith over advancement
Relationships sacrificed for moral principles

Priestly Vocations

The Church today faces a shortage of priestly vocations in many countries. Father Paul's example reminds us that:

God still calls men to priesthood from every background
Obstacles to vocation (poverty, lack of education, age) can be overcome
The priesthood is worth any sacrifice
Priests should be willing to lay down their lives for their flocks

Mission and Evangelization

Father Paul's willingness to endure persecution to bring Christ to his people challenges contemporary Catholics to:

Share our faith despite fear of rejection or ridicule
Support missionaries financially and through prayer
Recognize that evangelization sometimes requires courage
Value the salvation of souls above personal comfort

Lessons from Father Paul's Formation

Father Paul's unusual path to priesthood offers insights for Church leaders and educators:

Flexibility in Formation

The decision to allow Father Paul to study in Chinese rather than Latin demonstrated pastoral wisdom and flexibility. It suggests that:

Church institutions should adapt formation programs to individual circumstances
Essential formation can occur in various ways
Rules should serve vocations, not block them
Cultural adaptation in theological education is legitimate

Discerning Authentic Vocations

The rector who finally admitted Father Paul to seminary recognized that:

Vocation is ultimately God's call, not human judgment
Persistence and evident sincerity are signs of genuine vocation
External qualifications matter less than interior call and character
Sometimes unusual vocations require unusual accommodations

Supporting Late Vocations

Father Paul entered seminary at 24—late by the standards of his time. Today's Church increasingly recognizes the value of:

Second-career priests who bring life experience
Older candidates who have tested their vocations
Men who come to priesthood after years in other work

Father Paul's example validates and encourages these late vocations.

Intercession and Devotion

As a canonized saint, Paulus Liu Hanzuo can be invoked as an intercessor before God. Catholics might pray to him for:

Priestly Vocations: Asking his intercession for men discerning priesthood, especially those facing obstacles

Perseverance in Vocation: Praying for priests, religious, and all the baptized to remain faithful to their callings

Courage in Faith: Seeking his help to witness to Christ despite fear or opposition

The Church in China: Praying for Chinese Catholics, especially those facing persecution

Late Vocations: Asking his intercession for those discerning God's call later in life

The Poor and Marginalized: Invoking his prayers for those struggling with poverty or lack of education

Protection from Betrayal: Praying for protection from those who might harm us, and for grace to forgive those who do

Prayer to Saint Paulus Liu Hanzuo

O Glorious Saint Paulus Liu Hanzuo, faithful shepherd who laid down your life for Christ's flock, you persevered through poverty and hardship to answer God's call to priesthood. You ministered to your people in secret, risking arrest and death to bring them the sacraments. When betrayed, arrested, and condemned, you refused to deny your Lord or renounce your priestly vocation.

Intercede for us before the throne of God. Pray for those discerning priestly vocations, especially those who face obstacles and difficulties. Pray for priests who minister in dangerous circumstances or under persecution. Pray for the Church in China, that she may grow in faith and freedom. Pray for all who struggle with poverty, lack of education, or feelings of inadequacy.

Help us to persevere in our own vocations as you persevered in yours. Grant us courage to witness to Christ despite opposition or ridicule. Teach us to value eternal life more than earthly comfort or security. May your example inspire us to faithfulness, your intercession obtain for us grace, and your martyrdom bear fruit in the conversion of souls.

Saint Paulus Liu Hanzuo, faithful priest and courageous martyr, pray for us! Amen.

Saint Augustine Zhao Rong and the 120 Martyrs of China, pray for us!

Conclusion: The Seed That Fell to the Ground

Jesus said, "Truly, truly, I say to you, unless a grain of wheat falls into the earth and dies, it remains alone; but if it dies, it bears much fruit" (John 12:24). These words perfectly describe the life and death of Saint Paulus Liu Hanzuo.

Like a grain of wheat, Father Paul fell into the earth of Chinese soil. His life seemed brief and his ministry truncated. He served as a priest for less than ten years. He was arrested at age 39 or 40 and executed shortly thereafter. From a worldly perspective, his potential was cut short, his work incomplete.

Yet his death has borne abundant fruit:

His martyrdom strengthened the faith of Chinese Catholics in his own time
His witness inspired other martyrs during subsequent persecutions
His canonization has brought honor to the Chinese Church
His story continues to inspire vocations and conversions
His intercession is invoked by Catholics around the world
His example challenges us to examine our own faithfulness

Today, despite more than a century of persecution that followed Father Paul's death—including the Boxer Rebellion, the Communist revolution, the Cultural Revolution, and ongoing restrictions—Catholic Christianity survives and even grows in China. Estimates suggest there are 12-15 million Catholics in China today, plus many more Protestant Christians. This is the fruit of the blood of martyrs like Father Paul Liu Hanzuo.

The Church in China, though still facing challenges, is no longer an underground, persecuted minority clinging to existence. Chinese Catholics have their own bishops, priests, religious communities, and laity. They celebrate the sacraments, maintain seminaries, and pass on the faith to new generations. They do so standing on the foundation laid by martyrs like Saint Paulus Liu Hanzuo.

The grain of wheat that fell to the ground on February 13, 1818, at the East Gate execution ground in Chengdu, has indeed borne much fruit—fruit that continues to grow and multiply to this day.

For Further Reading and Study

Papal Documents:

Pope St. John Paul II, Homily for the Canonization of the 120 Martyrs of China (October 1, 2000)
Pope Leo XIII, Decree on the Martyrdom of Chinese Catholics (1899)

Historical Sources:

Records of the Paris Foreign Missions Society
Chinese Catholic historical documents
Martyrologies and saints' calendars

Studies on Chinese Christianity:

The Catholic Church in China (various historical studies)
Christianity in Sichuan Province
History of persecution under the Qing Dynasty
The Chinese Rites Controversy

Related Saints:

Saint Augustine Zhao Rong (first Chinese martyr-priest, d. 1815)
Saint John Gabriel Taurin Dufresse (bishop martyred in 1815, whose witness converted Augustine Zhao Rong)
Saint Francis Regis Clet (Vincentian missionary martyred 1820)
Saint John Gabriel Perboyre (Vincentian missionary martyred 1840)
The Martyrs of the Boxer Rebellion (1900)

Contemporary Resources:

Asian Catholic Initiative resources on Chinese martyrs
Chinese Catholic communities and documentation
Studies on martyrdom and witness

Saint Paulus Liu Hanzuo, pray for us!
Saint Augustine Zhao Rong and the 120 Martyrs of China, pray for us!
Mary, Mother of the Church and Queen of Martyrs, pray for us!

"If I forget you, O Jerusalem, let my right hand forget its skill! Let my tongue stick to the roof of my mouth, if I do not remember you, if I do not set Jerusalem above my highest joy!" (Psalm 137:5-6)

Just as the psalmist could not forget Jerusalem, may we never forget the martyrs who shed their blood for Christ and his Church. May their witness inspire us to faithfulness, their intercession strengthen us in trial, and their example lead us to heaven. Amen.

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Feb 13, 2015

⛪ Saint Paulus Liu Hanzuo (劉翰佐保祿)